Prologue
As mentioned by Conway Henderson in International Relations: Conflict and Cooperation at the Turn of the 21st Century (Singapore: McGraw Hill, 1998), post-cold war international relations were marked by the formation of various actors and issues that played an important role in global relations. In the realm of actors between state and non-state actors, the later have emerged but are able to carry out various practices of international relations, whether their influence leads to cooperation and peace or incites a conflict, so that the state is no longer a dominant actor although it remains as primary.
Whereas in the realm of issues, the attention of mankind is no longer focused on high politics in the form of national security and military issues alone, but issues that were originally categorized as low politics have emerged and received special attention. Therefore, the impact caused by the disturbance to international security and order is no longer a monopoly on the issue of national security alone. Thus, non-traditional security threats such as environmental issues, the spread of disease, transnational crimes and others, have a role to seriously threaten global peace.
On the other hand, the conflicts of communal identity which are usually based on religion, ethnicity, race, clan, or other identities have become the object of study that has emerged in international relations.
As the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic which began to emerge in Wuhan, China, it can paralyze all aspects of life in the world and change the standard pattern of order into a new normal life. Likewise the death of George Floyd on May 25, 2020, which led to massive demonstrations that led to riots in most states in the United States of America and the Continent of Europe, as a form of protest over racist police actions that led to Foyld’s death.
Even though the pattern of life in the world has undergone changes like above, the mandate of the opening of the 1945 Indonesian Constitution guides us to continue to strive to play an active role in creating world peace. International security threats related to religious issues have not escaped our diplomacy, and the fact that Indonesia is a country with the largest Muslim population in the world strengthens this.
On the other hand, one of the religious organizations that plays an important role in Indonesia’s socio-political life is Nahdlatul Ulama (NU). Since its inception, NU has attempted to carry out diplomatic participation in the realm of international relations by sending a delegation of the Hijaz Committee to the Saudi Arabian government for the purpose of ensuring tolerance in religious practice. Then what are the diplomatic principles developed by NU in dealing with various problems that threaten international security?
The Role of Religion in World Peace
For a long time, religious discussion in the study and practice of modern international relations has been marginalized. From the perspective of the history of European diplomacy, this has been marked since the signing of the Westphalia Agreement in 1648, which became its initial momentum. On the other hand, interest-based match politics dominates more. The existence of this practice can be examined by the fact that the realism (and not the idealism) of international politics has become the dominant perspective in international relations. However, throughout history, religion has formed a significant political identity and has played an important role in global politics.[1]
In the 21st century it has also awakened us to pay attention to religious issues in the study of international relations. It started with the end of the cold war, the publication of the article Clash of Civilization by Huntington, to the tragedy of 11/9 2001, which was often cited by many as the main factor contributing to it. In that sense, along with global development, religion is increasingly believed to have a role in international relations.[2] Even today, religion is considered a source of identity that increasingly competes with citizenship in gaining community loyalty.
Religion is a transnational phenomenon, similar to two sides of a coin that has the potential to create harmony and conflict altogether.[3] Sentiment in the name of religion is so easy to resonate into a force that spreads to all corners of the earth with unpredictable magnitude. The influence of religion in international relations includes four things as stated in the work of Jonathan Fox, The Multiple Impacts of Religion on International Relations: Perceptions and Reality, namely sources of legitimacy for states and its opponent; religious world view; local religious conflicts are international issues; and the last is transnational religious phenomena and issues.[4] Therefore the influence of religion on international politics is inevitable.
It’s just that if we use the instrumentalist perspective paradigm in analyzing the role of religion on conflict as seen in the thoughts of Dieter Senghaas, for example, in fact religion rarely becomes the original variable causing conflict.[5] In fact, what happens is the fact that religion is exploited for political, economic, or political purposes. and social so that it triggers the axis of conflict. In line with, this is the view that religion often plays an important role in war, but actually rarely causes it.[6]
Meanwhile, Shireen T. Hunter in the article Religion and International Affairs: From Neglect to Over-Emphasis, stated that religion influences international relations with the same pattern found in other value systems and ideologies, namely by influencing the behavior of the state and non-state actors. In other words, religion plays the same role as other ideologies in order to legitimize policy decisions and garner popular support for those policies.[7]
Based on the explanation above, by looking at the relationship between religion and international security, attention to various religious groups and their activities is important. It’s just that international relations text books do not provide a sufficient portion to discuss in depth the behavior of the adherents of this religion, until the last two decades—especially after the 9/11 tragedy—only before this discussion has come up a lot in the discourse of international relations. Although it should be admitted that terrorists and extremists tend to be the object of study than moderate religious groups.[8] From this, it could be perceived that they regard religion and religious groups as merely sources of conflict. In fact, this perception is not quite accurate, as stated by Appleby: “The facts suggest a dual legacy of organized religion, a tremendous potential for violence as well as extraordinary resources for reconciliation”.[9]
Some examples of books that explore the role of moderate religious groups are, for example, in the book Religion in International Relations: The Return from Exile edited by Pavlos Hatzopoulos and Fabio Petit.[10] The book includes the article Islam and the West: Muslim Voices of Dialogue by John L. Esposito and John O. Vol who also discussed the influence of moderatism in religion brought by Anwar Ibrahim from Malaysia and KH. Abdurrahman Wahid (4th President of Indonesia and Chief Executive of Nahdlatul Ulama, 1984-2000) from Indonesia. Another book that discusses moderate groups is The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations edited by Jan Melissen.[11] The book contains a chapter on Dialogue-based Public Diplomacy: a New Foreign Policy Paradigm? by Shaun Riordan.
When associated with Indonesian Muslims, there are at least two large religious organizations that are often identified with moderate groups, namely Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) and Muhammadiyah. Those two always identified as the largest religious group in Indonesia and often attract citizen’s attention for their political attitudes and behavior. They often carry out second-track diplomacy to participate in dealing with several international security problems.
Principles of Peace Diplomacy from the Perspective of NU
In the previous sub-theme, it has been explained that the role of religion in the world of global politics is quite calculated, because it is a source of power that can bring about peace or even the axis of conflict. However, the space for peace initiated by religions and their groups has a wider influence, if the religious authorities are able to translate the teachings in it as a source of peace, unity and brotherhood among fellow believers and other religious communities, without sacrificing their respective beliefs.
Within Islam itself, the two main sources of law, namely the Qur’an and Hadith, clearly stimulate people to be involved in humanitarian action. Even concrete assistance such as zakat, infaq and alms, all of them become rituals as well as obligations. This is what makes Islam attached to the idea of humanity.
On the other hand, as al-jam’iyyah al-dîniyyah al-`ijtimâ’iyyah (religious and community organizations), Nahdlatul Ulama (NU)[12] was founded based on religious motives and principles and ideals, namely ‘izz al-`islâm wa al-muslimîn (the nobility of Islam and the Muslims) towards rahmah li al-‘âlamîn (being a blessing for all of nature). The implication is that all attitudes, behavior, and characters are always adjusted and measured by the norms of law and Islamic teachings. The Islamic teachings carried out are the teachings of `ahl as-sunnah wa al-jamâ’ah (sunnî) with several basic principles such as tasâmuh (tolerance), tawâzun (balance), `i’tidâl/tawassuth (moderation), and tasyâwur (consult) according to the basic principles set out in the Qur’an.[13]
The meaning of tawassuth is a religious attitude that is not trapped towards things of an extreme nature. Al-Qur’an surah al-Baqarah verse 143 which is the basis for stating, “And thus We have made you a median [i.e., just] community that you will be witnesses over the people and the Messenger will be a witness over you.” The choice of this attitude of tawassuth is based on NU’s ability to discover the substantive values of Islam, by practicing Islamic teachings that are contextual to the times and needs of the ummah.
Meanwhile, tasâmuh is essentially a religious and social attitude that accepts life as something plural and hydrogen. This means an attitude that respects differences and respects people who have different life principles. For tawâzun itself is a balance of religious and social attitudes that are willing to take various points of view into account, and then take a balanced and proportional position.[14] The meaning comes from the 25th verse from Surat al- Hadid, Allah Almighty said, “We have already sent Our messengers with clear evidences and sent down with them the Scripture and the balance that the people may maintain [their affairs] in justice.”
So that if someone has practiced tasâmuh and tawâzun in his conscious life, then he will be motivated to do tasyâwur, which is to carry out dialogue in every problem solving.
`I’tidal is an attitude that is fair or also upright concerning cognitive truth which can be interpreted as consistency in upholding religious truth by means of the correct methodology. As stated in Surat al Maidah verse 8, “O you who have believed, be persistently standing firm for Allah, witnesses in justice, and do not let the hatred of a people prevent you from being just. Be just; that is nearer to righteousness. And fear Allah; indeed, Allah is [fully] Aware of what you do.”
Furthermore, what is the interpretation of these principles in a humanitarian context? In As’ad Said Ali’s narrative, it is stated that the principles just now are essentially operational values that embody the great mission of Islam as rahmah li al-‘âlamîn. More so, according to him, with that principle the Islamic movement is not limited to its own community. On the contrary, the perfection of Islam is visible because it could embrace all problems that are beyond its own limits. It is a paradigm of Islamic struggle for the progress of the nation, for the good of society, and for the common benefit, so that with all these paradigms, this is the biggest modality that can be used to solve problems.[15]
The implication for plural social relations is that the attitude developed is tolerance to different groups, and views that inter-group interactions must be based on mutual respect. The social behavior of NU residents is to uphold Islamic norms by prioritizing common interests, upholding brotherhood, work values and achievements as well as knowledge. And in the political sphere upholding democratic values, being constitutional and enforcing the law. Whereas in the field of culture, having a proportional-normative attitude, namely responding to culture based on legal values and religious teachings and not being a priori to culture.[16]
NU’s understanding of the essence and substance of religion, as well as its mastery of the horizons of various schools of thought in Islam, gave them a broad perspective and behavior. As quoted from Ra`îs ‘Âm (The Superior General) of NU, KH Sahal Mahfudz, NU has the character of elasticity and flexibility. Among them their understanding of jurisprudence is knowledge of Islamic law that undergoes the `ijtihâdî process (human thought and interpretation of text).[17] So that the understanding that construction religious teachings through contextual and adaptive fiqh will allow it to change the elastic results of `ijtihâd, if existing fiqh texts are—for example—irrelevant or do not lead to justice.
Then what are the basic principles of NU in international relations? Then these principles become the inspiration for the realization of moderate Islam and peace which is certainly in line with humanitarian principles.
In NU’s view, the universal ideals of Islam itself can be summarized in the al-maqâshid asy-syarî’ah (goals of Islamic legal doctrine), namely hifzh ad-dîn (maintaining religion), hifzh al-‘aql (maintaining freedom of thought), hifzh al-mâl (maintaining property), hifzh an-nafs (maintaining the right to life), and hifzh an-nasb (maintain the right to develop offspring).[18]
The implication is that every season is demanded to have a high sensitivity towards humanity. One of the frequently quoted sayings of the Prophet that are related to this human value is `unshur `akhâka zhâliman `aw mazhlûman (help your brother whether he commits injustice or when he is wronged). This also serves as a theological foundation that is not only devoted among Muslims, but in line with the principle of impartiality, namely carrying out humanitarian action without discrimination against any identity. As for the verse of the Al-Qur`an that is often associated with this is Surah al-Hujurat 13, that God made humans from male and female, and made humans as nationalities and tribes to know each other.
According to KH. Hasyim Muzadi (4 th of Chief Executive of Nahdlatul Ulama, 1999-2010), those principles have also become a distinctive social character as well as NU’s capital in interacting with the wider community. As such, it will play a very important role in building `ukhuwwah `islâmiyyah (brotherhood of fellow Muslims) and `ukhuwwah wathaniyyah (brotherhood of fellow citizens of the nation) so that they can go hand in hand to maintain harmony between religious communities, as well as `ukhuwwah `insâniyyah/basyariyyah (brotherhood of fellow human beings).
At this point, it is clear how the value of humanity occupies a very central position as an inseparable part of the religious attitude of a Muslim. At the global level, this modality also makes NU a national ambassador in introducing to various parts of the world the teachings of Islam rahmah li al-‘âlamîn.[19]
Epilogue
In the end, the participation of private group diplomacy such as religious organizations is increasingly needed for world peace. Meanwhile, for NU, it is a diplomatic mission that is soft power with the ultimate goal of world peace. There are at least four things that prompted NU to choose this route in international relations. First, there is encouragement from religious teachings so that there is a moral obligation to carry it out. In the context of NU, this is formulated in the great mission carried by all Muslims, namely to bring Islam as a blessing for all nature. This mission does not lead to conflict but rather to peace, social justice and reconciliation.
Second, the mission is derived into several operational principles in social relations such as tolerance (tasâmuh), moderate (tawassuth), fairness and consistency (`i’tidâl), balance (tawâzun) and deliberation. Third, humanitarian diplomacy is in line with the concept of brotherhood among Muslims (`ukhuwwah Islamiyah), fellow citizens (`ukhuwwah wathaniyyah), and fellow human beings (`ukhuwwah basyariyyah). Fourth, it is also in line with the religious teachings of hifzh ad-dîn (maintaining religion), hifzh al-‘aql (maintaining freedom of thought), hifzh al-mâl (maintaining property), hifzh an-nafs (maintaining the right to life), and hifzh nasb (maintaining the right to develop offspring).
Based on the four components that inspired the NU, the strategies implemented include the shuttle diplomacy pattern which is carried out in turns and sequentially to meet the conflicting parties; approach to religious leaders with the modalities of the closeness of the relationship and trust they have; promote dialogue; encouraging legal and institutional approaches as conflict resolution; to campaigning for the face of Islam rahmah li al-‘âlamîn.
In general, NU’s contribution in the context of international peace and security cannot be underestimated. Because diplomacy by the state will almost certainly find it difficult to penetrate the private spaces of religious adherents and leaders who are in conflict with other groups. So it is the approach of religious leaders that can often help explain it. In the end, what NU leaders have attempted to play a significant role in solving problems in the Muslim world and internationally, including in bridging the Islam-West gap will be realized. Wallâh `a’lam bi haqîqatil hâl.
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[1] Richard W. Mansbach and Kristen L. Rafferty, Introduction to Global Politics, (New York, Routledge, 2008), pag. 720.
[2] As in the article by Monica Duffy Toft, Religion Matters in International Relations, in http://www.huffingtonpost.com/monica-duffy-toft/turning-religious-and-mul_b_481237.html
[3] Charles W. Kegley and Eugene R. Witkopf, Global Politics: Trend and Transformation. 6th Edition (New York: St martin Pressl, 1997). To see the influence of religion as a part of social identity that threatens security, please read on Peter Hough, Understanding Global Security. 2nd Edition (London: Routledge, 2008).
[4] http://www.ifri.org/files/politique_etrangere/4_2006_Fox.pdf.
[5] Dr. Ines- Jacqueline Werkner in, The Caucasian Review on International Affairs, vol. 4 ( Summer 2010: 273-247).
[6] Al McKay, Religion, Sacred Value and Conflict, article posted on June 14, 2014 on http://www.e- ir.info/2012/06/14/religion-sacred-values-and-conflict/.
[7] Articles can be seen on http://www.e-ir.info/2010/04/07/religion-and- international-affairs-from-neglect-to-over-emphasis/.
[8] As in the book of Colin S. Gray, War, Peace and International Relations : An Introduction to Strategic History (New York: Routledge, 2007).
[9] Work by R. Scott Appleby on, The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation, (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000).
[10] Hatzopoulos, Pavlos, and Fabio Petito, Religion in International Relations: The Return from Exile, that edited by (New York:PALGRAVE MACMILLAN, 2003).
[11] Melissen, Jan., The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations (New York: PALGRAVE MACMILLAN, 2005)
[12] Soeleiman Fadeli and Mohammad Subhan, Antologi NU: Sejarah, Istilah, Amaliah, Uswah, (Surabaya: Khalista, 2007).
[13] KH Achmad Siddiq, KH. Khitthah Nahdliyyah (Surabaya: Khalista, 2007 )
[14] KH Masyhudi Muchtar, Aswaja An-Nahdliyah, Ajaran Ahlussunnah Wal Jamaah yang Berlaku di Lingkungan Nahdlatul Ulama (Surabaya: Khalista, 2007), pag. 51-52.
[15] As’ad Said Ali, Islam Rahmatan Lil ‘Alamin: NU dan Peran Kenegaraannya, (the speech was delivered during a meeting in istanbul), can be seen on http://www.nu.or.id/a,public-m,dinamic-s,detail-ids,6- id,35031-lang,id-c,taushiyah-t,Islam+Rahmatan+Lil++lsquo+Alamin++NU+dan+Peran+Kenegaraannya-.phpx
[16] Thoyyib dan Endang Turmudzi (eds.), Islam Ahlussunnah Waljamaah: Sejarah, Pemikiran dan Dinamika Nahdlatul Ulama (Jakarta: Pustaka Maarif NU, 2007), pag. 199-200.
[17] Sahal Mahfudz “Bahtsul Masail dan Istinbath Hukum NU: Sebuah Catatan Pendek”, these notes are the introduction to work of M. Imdadun Rahmat (et. all), Kritik Nalar Fiqih NU: Transformasi Paradigma Bahtsul Masail (Jakarta:Lakpesdam, 2002).
[18] Ahmad Zubaidah, Citra Islam Rahmatan lil Alamin on Noor Shodiq Iskandar dan Hasan Abadi (et. all.), Konfigurasi Nalar Nahdlatul’Ulama (Malang: Pustaka Iqtishod, 2010), h. 63-68.
[19] Articles can be seen on KH Hasyim Muzadi, Islam Rahmatan Lil’alamin Menuju Keadilan dan Perdamaian Dunia (Perspektif Nahdlatul Ulama) in a scientific speech delivered at the reception of the Honoris Causa Doctorate in “Islamic Civilization” from UIN Sunan Ampel, Surabaya December 2, 2006.
